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vee

in the Collection of
the Cooper-Hewitt
Museum

The Smithsonian
Institution’s National
Museum of Design

46 10:5

if 7 NINS
Tiles /f ae in the Collection of
ar 4) v2 fe the CooperHewitt
. Coie. Museum
ae.

aa righ a
ae} aes Le Coa f The Smithsonian
A. me Peet Tor, Institution's National
hs cond ieee Museum of Design

© 1980 by the Smithsonian Institution.
All rights reserved.

Library of Congress Catalog No. 80-65036

Design Heidi Humphrey
Photography Tom Rose

Foreword

From the 19th century beginnings of
the collections which were to be-
come the Cooper-Hewitt Museum, it
was intended that the objects
preserved for study and enjoyment
represent the major periods and
styles that comprise the history of
design and decoration. Specific types
and materials were collected to
document a broad and comprehen-
sive survey of the decorative arts in
its variations and forms.

A prime example of this educational
and historical approach is seen in the
collections of ceramics at Cooper-
Hewitt Museum. Not only have
porcelains of the eighteenth century
been acquired, but significant exam-
ples of earthenware and stoneware
from both the East and West. A por-
tion of the ceramics collection covers
the history of tiles, one of the most
richly varied groups within the history
of ceramics.

The Cooper-Hewitt collection of tiles,
which has continued to expand in
quality and interest since the early

years of the Museum, contains su-
perb Dutch pictorial tiles, early Middle
Eastern examples, and brilliant
Spanish tiles in a multitude of pat-
terns and colors. In addition to these
documentary groups are a fascinating
variety of English, German, French,
Italian and American tiles that trace
the history of the craft over the last
400 years.

It is with pride that the collection of
tiles at Cooper-Hewitt Museum is in-
troduced with this publication, made
possible through the generous assis-
tance of the Charles E. Merrill Trust.

Lisa Taylor
Director

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Ceramics, in the form of earthen-
ware, stoneware or porcelain, reflect
a continuous chronology of artistic
enterprise from mankind's earliest
prehistoric period to the present day.
Even the most cursory glance at the
historical and cultural development of
human societies throughout the
world indicates that nearly every cul-
ture has nourished a distinctive
ceramic tradition. The objects pro-
duced from formed, dried, and fired
clay are often inherently functional
and useful. Ceramics are frequently
used as vessels for the storage and
serving of foods and beverages; they
may also take the form of indepen-
dent sculptural and figural creations.
One important and often overlooked
contribution of the ceramic artist to
the history of the decorative arts is
the production of tiles for use in both
interior and exterior settings. A tile,
like a brick, is a simply formed mass
of clay, intended to be the outer cas-
ing for a wall, floor or other surface.
Generally flat and thin, usually fired to
a hard and brittle state, tiles are often
coated with a glaze to provide a sur-

5

face impervious to moisture and
resistant to wear and dirt. In contrast
to bricks, however, tiles serve other
direct and obvious ornamental func-
tions within an architectural setting,
in that they frequently provide the
major color, texture and pattern for
the surfaces of walls, ceilings, and
floors. Both Eastern and Western cul-
tures have preserved a proud tradi-
tion of tilemaking; techniques of fab-
rication, the ways in which tiles were
used, and the patterns that were
carved, stamped, glazed and painted
vary greatly, and there are notable in-
fluences from one country to another.

The production of tiles usually begins
with the formation of a smooth and
pliable clay body, free of lumps,
stones, and other impurities which
may weaken the body of the tile or
interfere with successful firing of the
clay. Generally, local clays are mined
near the place of production; these
clays are carefully refined and mixed
to produce a moist, workable mass.
Since tiles are commonly flat and thin,
the clay body is worked by hand and

with rollers or other flattening devi-
ces to produce a large, even slab
from which the basic shapes —
squares, rectangles or lozenges — are
cut. Following this relatively simple
procedure, tilemaking takes on a
more complicated and fascinating
aspect, for it is at this point that the
decision is made regarding the deco-
ration and ornamentation of the tile.
Tiles may have relief decoration
carved, scratched or impressed into
the still-moist surface of the clay to
produce three-dimensional relief pat-
terns (Illus. 14) or sunken patterns of
lines and shapes (Illus. 25). Since the
majority of tiles intended for use in
architectural settings are covered
with a layer of protective glaze, the
possibilities for pattern and color are
nearly limitless; tiles may be glazed in
a single color, but more frequently are
decorated with several colors to pro-
duce a variety of lustrous and bril-
liantly patterned surfaces. Many tiles
are decorated with solid expanses of
color applied directly to the surface
and fired in the kiln to weld the colors
to the body (Illus. 15); in other in-

stances, the colors may be applied
under or over the glazed surface. Un-
derglaze patterns, generally painted
with pigments derived from metallic
compounds such as cobalt, man-
ganese, copper and Iron to produce a
varied palette of color, may be painted
freehand on the surface of the tile
(Illus. 17), or copied from a stencilled
or pricked pattern which guides the
craftsman in the depiction of more
complicated figures and scenes (Illus.
11). Colors, patterns and textures
may be applied over the fired glaze,
requiring an additional firing to secure
the design to the glazed surface;
overglaze enamels also may be
painted by hand (Illus. 21) or even
transfer-printed from engraved de-
signs (Illus. 22). The range of possi-
bilities for the decoration of tiles, as
indicated in the selection of tiles from
the Cooper-Hewitt collection, is
nearly unlimited.

The sources for the decorative motifs
used on tiles provide another fas-

cinating area of study in the history of
the medium. In many instances, pat-

6

terns for tile decorations are drawn
directly or indirectly from natural
forms; extremely popular throughout
the history of tilemaking are patterns
adapted from the world of plants —
flowers, fruit, and foliage are seen on
both Eastern and Western examples
(Illus. 2,9). Equally appealing are rep-
resentations of animals of both do-
mestic and exotic varieties (Illus. 26).
Tiles may be used to record particular
persons, families or associations
(Illus. 13) and thus have a significant
heraldic function. Allegories (Illus. 18)
and narratives (Illus. 11) provide yet
another rich source of inspiration for
tile painters and designers; scenes
chosen for depiction on tiles may be
derived from popular literature, myth
or Biblical sources. Throughout the
entire history of tiles, geometric pat-
terns are found (Illus. 5) in which bril-
liant fields of color are contrasted
with one another on the glassy sur-
face of the tile.

Basically, tiles are used in three differ-
ent ways: the tile may be conceived
and produced as a single unit to stand

by itself, or used to punctuate a plain
surface; tiles may be used ina repeat-
ing pattern or sequence to produce a
larger coherent pattern; or they may
become the vehicle for a pictorial
composition in which the pattern or
scene depicted is painted on con-
tiguous tiles, the tiles becoming a
variation on a canvas or other painting
ground. Tiles made in the latter fash-
ion must be combined in a strictly
predetermined plan to assure the
sense and order of the pattern

(Illus. 17).

Tiles have been used in many and
varied settings, mostly architectural,
ranging from the simple border of a
wall or other surface (Illus. 8), to the
covering of entire floors, walls, or
even ceilings. Due to the fact that
nearly all tiles have been made hard
and dense by exposure to high firing
temperatures, they are extremely re-
sistant to damage from heat and
flame and have thus been used as
stove plates (Illus. 14) or as the back-
ing for fireplaces. The insulative
properties of tiles have not been

overlooked; tiles have been used to
retain heat in cold climates and to
preserve comfortable coolness in
warmer climates, particularly on
floors. The glass-like surface of
glazed tiles have made them desir-
able additions to kitchens and areas
subject to heavy use due to the fact
that they are easily cleaned, resistant
to most stains, and washable. These
practical functions are significant in
the history of tiles, but of greater im-
portance is the potential for color, pat-
tern and design which tiles contain,
and the contribution of the tilemaker
to the overall history of design in the
decorative arts and architecture. A
great variety of tiles, documenting
the styles of many cultures and pe-
riods are found in the collections of
the CooperHewitt Museum, and to
understand their importance, it is es-
sential to examine the contexts in
which tiles have appeared.

Colored glazes that were used on
tiles can be traced back to ancient
Egypt, where the use of a distinctive
deep turquoise blue glaze, derived

v

from copper, was developed. Pat-
terns scratched or impressed on the
surfaces of soft clay were filled with a
thick layer of this glaze, producing
variations in the surface color. This
technique, similar in many ways to
enamelling, has remained popular
among tilemakers to the present day.

Mesopotamia early developed a
sophisticated tile tradition that per-
mitted a spectacular architectural ap-
plication of glazed clay; undoubtedly
one of the most familiar master
pieces of early glazed brickwork is the
famed Ishtar gate at Babylon, which
dates to the 6th century B.C. This
gate provided access to the holy city,
and was ornamented with large and
commanding representations of
lions. The sacred buildings them-
selves were covered with a variety
of awe-inspiring images of bulls and
dragons modelled in relief and glazed
a brilliant yellow against a striking
deep turquoise blue ground. These
isolated examples of early glazed clay
used as an architectural surface
suggest the antiquity of the art of

tilemaking, and lead the way for de-
velopments of major importance in
later periods.

Among the earliest tiles in the
Cooper-Hewitt collection is an English
floor tile dated to the fourteenth cen-
tury (Illus. 1). This small, square tile is
made of deep red clay; the surface of
the tile has been impressed with a
negative pattern of a spread-winged,
double-headed eagle. The sunken
pattern has been inlaid with a cream-
colored fine clay to produce a clear,
contrasting pattern against the dark
red; substantial traces of the inlaid
clay are still visible. The inlaying of

8

1. England
Floor Tile, 14th century
Red earthenware, inlaid with pipe clay

Au Panier Fleuri Fund
1955-144-1

one colored clay into another is a
technique for tile decoration which
flourished primarily in the Western
world, and it has been suggested that
floor tiles produced with this tech-
nique were ultimately inspired by the
classical tradition of mosaic inlay
used on floors and walls. In early in-
laid tiles, the simple and often bold
patterns were carved by hand in the
tile surface prior to inlaying; later, a
mold or stamp was used to create the
depressed designs with greater ease
and efficiency.

The design of the inlaid eagle on this
tile suggests an heraldic function for
the tile, although many examples of
early inlaid tiles which survive are
purely geometric. These single, rath-
er small, tiles were frequently used in
complex patterns covering an entire
floor, in which individual patterned
tiles became part of a larger over-

all design. Due to the thickness of
the tile itself, and the deeply inlaid
clay which, when fired, was united
with the supporting clay body, these

2. Persia
Tile, possibly 13th century
Glazed earthenware, lustre decoration

Gift of the Estate of David Wolfe Bishop
1958-72-1

tiles were extremely durable floor
coverings, and remained popular
in England and France for sever-
al centuries.

In contrast to the bold inlay of this
Western tile is an early Persian tile in
the Museum collection (Illus. 2). This
large tile was possibly used in a
mihrab, the sacred prayer niche in a
mosque. The thick tile is decorated
with a raised inscription in blue set
against a lustre-painted ground of en-

9

a

IS2

twined scrolls and stylized foliage.
Persian tiles of the Islamic period
(after 641) are among the most ele-
gant and refined in the history of the
craft. Of particular interest and
beauty are those tiles made in the
famed city of Kashan; by the 13th
century, Persian tiles were generally
referred to as kashani after the name
of the prolific center from which most
of these tiles issued. Many of the
Kashan tiles, like the CooperHewitt
example, were decorated with a

metallic lustre, produced by covering
the surface of a previously glazed tile
with a metallic oxide derived from
silver or copper. After application of
the metal the tiles were fired another
time in a reducing atmosphere pro-
duced by introducing smoke into the
firing kiln. The process of making
lustred ceramics in Kashan was de-
scribed in one of the earliest treatises
on ceramics dated 1301; written by
Abulgasim ibn-Abdallah ibn-Ali ibn-
Muhammed ibn-Ali Tahir, this book

records that“... everything which
has had a fire of this kind glistens like
red gold and shines like the light of
the sun.”

Used in a mosque, this tile indicates
the close relationship that has tradi-
tionally existed between tilemaking
and architecture. In the case of many
Persian tiles, the function of the tile
also reflects the religious implica-
tion of the image; due to the sacred
nature of the mosque, no repre-

10

sentations of figures or animals were
allowed, and the inscription and
stylized foliage assumed great impor-
tance in the design. Figural repre-
sentations did, however, appear on
Persian tiles intended for secular
settings.

The growth of an independent tile in-
dustry in Turkey was encouraged by
an influx of Persian artists who set-
tled in the country, bringing with them
a specialized knowledge and skill in

3. Turkey

Wall Tile, late 16th century
Tin-glazed earthenware, underglaze
decoration

Gift of Mrs. Russell C. Veit
1951-66-9

the design and fabrication of architec-
tural tiles. Another aspect of the
Turkish tradition was the importation
of large quantities of Chinese blue
and white porcelain around the four
teenth century that inspired an entire
range of beautifully painted under-
glaze decorated tiles. Many Chinese
designs were copied or imitated by
Turkish potters and painters, particu-
larly in centers such as Damascus.
However, the most skillful and ele-
gant tiles were produced in the city of

Isnik (the ancient Nicaea). The clay
used in the Isnik potteries was of a
composition which fired nearly
white; when combined with a white
wash and clear glaze, this ceramic
material provided a perfect foil for bril-
liant underglaze polychrome decora-
tions (Illus. 3). Around the middle of
the sixteenth century, a new color,
red, was added to the traditional blue
and white Isnik palette; this distinc-
tive brilliant red, often referred to as
“sealing wax" red, was used in com-
bination with blue and green to pro-
duce stunning floral patterns. The
Cooper-Hewitt tile from the Isnik
workshops Is decorated with stylized
floral arabesques and blossoms that
radiate from an eight-pointed blos-
som inthe center. The tile is obviously
designed to allow a continued pattern
from one tile to the next. The colors of
the tile are evocative of the rich
splendors of the Middle East, and
suggest the poetic and religious inspi-
ration for Turkish architecture. Among
the great masterpieces in the history
of tiled architecture is that of the Cinili
Kiosk (attached to the Topkapi

11

Museum); this monument richly de-
serves the praise which is recorded
on its tiles in the 15th century when
the building was constructed.
Preserved for posterity is the senti-
ment that

this pavilion, which is as lofty as the
heavens, was so constructed that its
great height would seem to stretch a
hand up to the Gemini themselves.
Its most worthless part would adorn
the most precious item of Saturn’s
crown. Its emerald cupola sparkles
like the heavens and is honoured with
inscriptions from the stars. Its floor of
turquoise with its varied flowers and
chameleon decoration reminds one
of the eternal vineyards of Paradise.

A distinctive and impressive tradition
of tilemaking was seen to flourish in
Spain and Portugal. In 711 A.D. the
Iberian peninsula came under Islamic
rule; with this political change came
the influence of the artistic heritage
of the Middle East. It was around the
thirteenth century that tiles began to
be produced in Spain, generally for

use as a paving material. Patterns for
many early tile installations were pro-
duced by cutting colored glazed tiles
into small pieces and laying these
sections into a ground in the same
way as mosaics. This expensive and
time-consuming process for archi-
tectural enrichment was supersed-
ed by the development of fully-
decorated tiles with multi-colored
patterns on their surfaces; such tiles
were known as azulejos.

Two important techniques were de-
veloped to enable craftsmen to work
successfully with colored glazes on
the tile surface. Bold colored glazes
were used in close proximity to one
another on these tiles; in the heat of
the kiln, the glazes tended to run to-
gether and spoil the sharp geometric
pattern or, even worse, resulted ina
muddied mélange of colors. The first
technique designed to solve this
problem, and one which received
general application in the Spanish tile
workshops, was known as cuerda
seca. |n this technique, the lines
which describe the patterns and col-

. (left) Spain

Two Tiles, 17th century

Glazed earthenware (cuerda seca
technique), blue, green and ochre
decoration

Gift of Christian Rohlfing
1979-63-2,3

ors on the surface were laid on the tile
with a greasy substance, and the pat-
terns painted with glazes of varied
colors. In the firing of the tile the
greasy lines prevented the glazes
from coming in contact; the lines
themselves generally burned out to a
deep brown or black. Clear and sharp
patterns, frequently of complex
geometric, organic and pictorial de-
signs, were produced (Illus. 4).

13

. Spain

Tile, 17th century
Glazed earthenware (cuenca technique),
black, yellow and green decoration

Gift of the Misses Hewitt
1929-17-20

A second technique, known as
cuenca, consisted of stamping the
surface of the clay with a pattern that
produced ridges of clay between the
pattern sections. Thus, indented pat-
terns, separated by “fences” of clay,
resulted; these depressed areas
were filled with glaze and fired in the
usual manner. Sharply defined pat-
terns with clear separations between
colors were easily and efficiently

accomplished through this technique
(Illus. 5).

In 1492, Isabella and Ferdinand of
Spain expelled the Moors from the
country, thus ending the long period
of Moorish occupation. However, the
artistic traditions of Moorish Spain
continued for an extended period.
Patterns and techniques developed
for the production of tiles during the

. Spain
Four Tiles, 17th century
Glazed earthenware, lustre decoration

Gift of Miss Sarah Cooper Hewitt
1907-36-1,2,3,4

Islamic period were maintained even
as late as the seventeenth century,
indicated by a group of four tiles in the
Museum collection (Illus. 6). These
tiles, part of a large repeating pattern,
are ornamented in the cuenca tech-
nique with stylized rosettes anda
sunburst pattern in radiant lustre
against a white ground.

The third great influence in the history
of tilemaking was the contribution of
Holland. Few countries have estab-
lished a reputation for the prolific pro-
duction of charming and beautiful
tiles to equal that of the Dutch. Dutch
merchants were among the earliest
to establish trade contacts with the
Orient, and they imported vast quan-
tities of Chinese blue and white
porcelains which became the rage in
Europe. In Dutch pottery workshops
a conscious effort to imitate Oriental
porcelains and to capitalize on the
economic possibilities of supplying
blue and white ceramics resulted ina
ceramic industry which led European
taste and made itself felt strongly in
the European artistic and economic

7. Holland (probably Delft)

Tile, early 17th century
Tin-glazed earthenware, underglaze
blue decoration

Gift of A. W. M. Odé, Jr.
1937-50-2

community. To achieve a pottery body
of the whiteness of Chinese porce-
lain, the secret of which was un-
known to Europeans until the early
eighteenth century, the Dutch used a
tin-oxide glaze which opacified in fir-
ing and obscured the colored clay
underneath the glaze. Combining this
sparkling white tin-oxide glaze with
underglaze painting in blue or with
polychrome colors, the Dutch created
a successful pottery industry, a great
portion of which was made up of
tiles. Dutch tiles were inexpensive to
produce, long wearing and decora-
tive, and were exported throughout
Europe, including clients in France,
Poland, Germany, Russia and even to
distant places like India. Among the
most important orders for Dutch blue
and white tiles was that placed for
Louis XIV during the late seventeenth
century construction of his famed
“Trianon de Porcelaine,” a fantasy
palace of blue and white earthenware
(both interior and exterior) built for
the King’s mistress Madame de
Montespan.

Typical of seventeenth century Dutch
tile design is a single tile (undoubtedly
originally part of a large installation of
similar tiles) that depicts in a shaped
reserve a stylized tulip plant with
three blossoms (Illus. 7). The tulip
craze in Europe, to which the Dutch
were the major supplier, is well-
documented in tiles such as this.
Examples of Dutch tiles of this period
are also frequently painted in poly-

chrome and depict specific varieties
of tulips. Most frequently seen, how-
ever, are tiles such as this, in which
the tulip is represented in a highly
stylized and simplified manner, with
little concern for fidelity to the actual
appearance of the plant or its blooms.
The Oriental influence on blue and
white tiles of the period is suggested
by the corner devices which consist
of crudely painted fretwork of Chi-
nese derivation.

. (above) Holland

10 a-d.

Border Tiles, 18th century
Tin-glazed earthenware, underglaze
manganese decoration

Gift of Miss Edith Wetmore
1937-68-7

. (far left) Holland (probably Delft)

Four Tiles, 17th century
Tin-glazed earthenware, blue, green
and yellow decoration

Gift of Mrs. Laurent Oppenheim
1934-5-6

(left) Holland

Four Tiles, 18th century
Tin-glazed earthenware, underglaze
blue decoration

Gift of Charles H. Vanderlaan,1936-18-1

The Friends of the Museum Fund,
1938-12-8 a,b, c

Other seventeenth century Dutch
tiles include references to the world
of nature in the form of grapes and
pomegranates (Illus. 9). These tiles
are painted in a polychrome palette
consisting of blue, green, anda
strong yellow. Dutch tiles were fre-
quently installed in the same way that
one would expect to see wallpaper,
covering entire interiors of the rooms
of a house. Many tiles were specifi-
cally designed for use with the
standard Dutch open fireplace
(smuiger); such installations required
an extensive number of tiles. Again,
the ease with which glazed tiles can
be cleaned was a factor in their
choice for the backs and sides of
smoky fireplaces. However, the tiles
also performed another important
function; since most Dutch houses
were constructed of wood the danger
from fire was great, and tiles retarded
the direct heat of the flames. Special
finishing borders (Illus. 8) were pro-
duced for such interiors.

The iconography of Dutch tiles runs
the gamut from depictions of the

11a-d. Holland

Four Tiles, 18th century:

Biblical subjects

Tin-glazed earthenware, underglaze
manganese decoration

Gift of A. W. M. Odé, Jr.
1939-7-1,2,3,4

world of nature to contemporary fig-
ures of women and men (Illus. 10b, c),
mythical sea monsters (Illus. 10a),
and, of course, landscapes and sea-
scapes (Illus. 10d). Most of these
stereotypical designs were produced
in enormous quantities for use at
home and for export. In spite of the
fact that the exuberance of the deco-
ration and the style of the painting
suggest that the tiles were entirely
handpainted, the workers in Dutch
tile factories actually relied most fre-
quently on a paper pattern with the
design pricked through in a series of
tiny holes. This pricked pattern was
laid on the prepared tile and dusted
with powdered charcoal to cause the
pattern to appear on the surface of
the tile. The outlines thus produced
were simply filled in and strength-
ened with cobalt blue applied with a
series of special brushes.

Among the pictorial and narrative tiles
produced by the thousands in the
Dutch factories, many were based on

12. Holland

Tile Panel, 18th century
Tin-glazed earthenware, underglaze
manganese decoration

Anonymous gift

well-known Biblical stories. A group
of four such tiles from the Museum
collection (Illus. 11a-d) illustrates
events drawn from the Gospels, such
as the Crucifixion and Entombment
of Christ. Each of the scenes is
painted in a dark manganese purple |
within a circle; at the bottom of each
vignette Is a reference to the scene. It
might be added that these citations
were not always correct, and thus at-
test to the speed of production of
these popular tiles.

Single pictorial tiles were used in pat-
terned wall installations. The Dutch,
however, also excelled at the produc-
tion of continuous scenic tile panels,
in which a large design was painted
over multiple contiguous tiles. Of this
type of tile panel, one example in the
Cooper-Hewitt collection shows a
still-life arrangement (Illus. 12) in
which a vase of flowers is supported
by a base painted with a seascape.
The exuberant bouquet of tulips,
roses and other miscellaneous flow-

19

13. Holland (probably Rotterdam)

Tile Panel, early 18th century
Tin-glazed earthenware, underglaze
manganese decoration

Gift of William Randolph Hearst
1941-76-1

ers is flanked by a pair of parrots. A
more elaborate tile panel (Illus. 13)
was probably made as a special
commission for Lubert Adolf Torck, to
be used in Rozendaal Castle near
Arnheim. The owner’s monogram
appears in the center of the panel,
within a cartouche held aloft by
chubby putti surrounded by a compli-
cated network of scrolls, foliage,
flowers and floral bouquets, and
meandering baroque strapwork. The
general design for this panel is related
to the published works of Daniel
Marot, a prolific Huguenot orneman-
iste active in England in the late
seventeenth century, but whose de-
signs were known and copied
throughout Europe. That the panel
was intended to be viewed inset into
a wall is indicated by the inclusion of a
trompe-l‘oeil marbleized edge that
surrounds three sides of the panel.

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The work of other Continental tile fac-
tories can only be briefly surveyed
here. Of more than passing interest is
an elegant French seventeenth cen-
tury stove tile made of unglazed
buff-colored earthenware in the

See

14. (right) France

Stove Tile, 17th century: “America”
Unglazed earthenware

Gift of the Trustees of the Estate of
James Hazen Hyde
1960-1-75

. (below right) Germany

Stove Tile, 16th century: “St. Martin
and the Beggar”
Green lead-glazed earthenware

Purchase in memory of
Jacques Seligmann
1950-100-1

Museum collection (Illus. 14). This
stove tile depicts in high relief the
personification of the American con-
tinent. The striding figure is swathed
in elaborate drapery; the identifica-
tion of the figure as the “New World”
is indicated by an accompanying in-

scription, but also suggested by the
braids which depend from the elabo-
rate French coiffure, the feathered
armbands and skirt, and the peacock
crest which crowns the head. Near
the figure is a parrot devouring a
highly stylized pomegranate beneath
a swooping long-tailed bird, all evoca-
tive of the exoticism of the little-
known continent.

The tile traditions of Germany are rep-
resented in the Cooper-Hewitt collec-
tions by a rare sixteenth century
stove tile (Illus. 15) that depicts the
story of St. Martin and the Beggar.
The stove tile is glazed with a brilliant
green lead glaze; the central scene of
the saint cutting off a portion of his
cloak to share with the poverty-
stricken wretch occurs within an
elaborate Renaissance-inspired ar-
chitectural setting.

21

16. Germany (possibly Hamburg)

Stove Tile, 18th century
Tin-glazed earthenware, underglaze
blue decoration

Gift of Henry Frederick William Rave
1936-35-4

German tiles of the eighteenth cen-
tury are related in both design and
techniques of fabrication to those
produced in the Netherlands; typical
of the taste of the century were
elaborate pictorial scenes. A stove
tile (Illus. 16) in the form of a narrow
rectangle is decorated with a heavy
baroque border painted to suggest an
aperture in a wall through which
one views a delicately shaded land-
scape scene.

An Italian eighteenth century scenic
panel, composed of fifteen tiles, is a
virtuoso effort in scenic trompe-l‘oeil
(Illus. 17). The gray-white ground of
the tiles is overpainted with what

is apparently a curtained balcony.
The ‘curtain is held in place near the
viewer on a rod attached to the wall.
The balcony is painted with faux
marbre moldings, and through the
wrought iron railing is perceived a

17. Italy (possibly Venice)

Tile Panel, 18th century
Tin-glazed earthenware, polychrome
decoration

Gift of the Misses Hewitt
1931-80-85

view of distant buildings mountains
and waterways. A final grace note to
the illusionistic effect is added by the
suspended bird cage complete with
a Canary.

Later Spanish traditions in tile design,
particularly those of the eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries, are
well-documented in the Cooper-
Hewitt collections. The tiles pro-
duced in Spain during this period
were frequently of two distinct
types: sophisticated narrative, picto-
rialand ornamental sequences not un-
like those produced in centers such
as Germany and Holland; and an ex-
traordinarily charming type of folk art
that emanated from centers in Alcora
and Valencia. These latter tiles de-
pict, with true folk-art innocence,
genre scenes and domestic activities
common to the area in which they
were produced.

23

24

. Spain

Four Tiles, 18th century:

“The Four Continents”

Tin-glazed earthenware, underglaze
blue decoration

Gift of the Trustees of the Estate of
James Hazen Hyde
1960-1-72 a,b,c,d

Among the former type of tiles is an
exceptional group of four tiles deco-
rated with personifications of the four
continents Asia, Europe, America and
Africa (Illus. 18). Each tile, painted in
underglaze blue, characterizes its re-
spective continent with persons and
activities suggestive of the geo-
graphic location. The tile representing
“America,” in contrast to the French
example, shows an American Indian
chief carried on a litter by four war-

riors with feather headdresses and
skirts, while a fifth displays a large
feather fan. At the head of this pro-
cession is a Spanish conquistador,
shown in rear view perspective be-
neath a parrot perched on the branch
of a tree. The sophistication of the
perspective rendering of the horse
and rider strongly suggest that a con-
temporary print was used as the
source for the imagery; indeed, an
engraving entitled “Florida” by

Theodor de Bry (1528— 1598) was
consulted for this image.

A group of four Spanish tiles selected
trom a large collection of related ex-
amples at Cooper-Hewitt (Illus. 19)
shows folk pottery and tilemaking at
its most winning. Each tile in this
group depicts either daily routine ac-
tivities such as marketing and the
preparation of food, or containers for
foods and beverages. In the scene of

25

cooking, a humorous touch is pro-
vided by the cat perched on one leg in
eager anticipation of a morsel of the
fish about to be dropped into the fry-
ing pan.

All of these tiles are painted ina rather
naive, often clumsy, and certainly
rapid, manner. The strong folk tra-
ditions indicated by such tiles are im-
portant documents in the qualitative
differences in taste recorded in the

19a-d. Spain
Four Tiles, late 18th-
early 19th century
Tin-glazed earthenware,
polychrome decoration

Gift of the Misses Hewitt
1920-15-5-398

tilemakers art. These tiles were ex-
tremely popular for installations in
kitchens, for they were able to with-
stand heat when used as a Surround
for cooking devices, and were also
easily cleaned and thus sanitary. Tiles
of similar nature often depicted entire
ranges of food products; painted iI-
lusionistically, such tile walls might
include fish, game and fowl hanging
from kitchen hooks, and shelves of
various ingredients and condiments.

A separate and equally delightful tile
tradition grew up in England. Early

English tiles were generally of the in-
laid variety discussed earlier, or they

26

were imported from Flemish fac-
tories for use as paving tiles. In the
middle part of the sixteenth century,
two potters of Antwerp — Jasper An-
dries and Jacob Janson— founded a
pottery workshop in Norwich, En-
gland, and produced tiles similar to
Continental varieties. By the eigh-
teenth century, however, a discern-
able English style was being pro-
duced at factories in London, Bristol
and Liverpool. Two tiles from the
Bristol factories (Illus. 20, 21) illustrate
some of the designs and techniques
fashionable for English interiors. The
first of the tiles depicts a floral bou-
quet reminiscent of Dutch examples,

20. (above left) England (Bristol)

Zale

Tile, mid-18th century
Tin-glazed earthenware, underglaze
blue and red decoration

The Friends of the Museum Fund
1938-12-1

(above right) England (Bristol)
Joseph Fowler factory

Tile, about 1760

Tin-glazed earthenware, underglaze
manganese and overglaze white
decoration

The Friends of the Museum Fund
1938-12-2

22. (above) England (Liverpool)
Sadler and Green factory

Tile, about 1760
Tin-glazed earthenware, red
transfer-printed decoration

Gift of Mrs. Harry Horton Benkard
1938-71-1

23. (above right) England

Tile, late 18th century
Tin-glazed earthenware, transfer-printed
and green decoration

27

including the ubiquitous flanking
birds. The circular reserve Is Surround-
ed by a spattered red-orange ground
punctuated at the corners by four
stylized cherubim; the spattering of
the surface was carried out after a
stencil to protect the desired white
areas had been placed on the tile. The
second tile is painted in the center
with manganese purple figures of
vaguely Chinese inspiration on a par-
ticularly attractive bluish-white
ground. Over the glaze are painted
miscellaneous flowers and leaves ina
pure and pristine white; this tech-
nique, known as bianco sopra bianco
(white on white) is typical of English

tin-glazed earthenware of the mid-
eighteenth century. The Dutch origins
of the technique of tin-glazing is re-
flected in the English term “delft-
ware,” used to describe this entire
family of ceramic products.

Another technique utilized in later
eighteenth century English tile pro-
duction was known as transfer print-
ing (Illus. 22, 23). In this technique, an
engraving was inked with enamel
ink; upon removal of the image on
paper from the engraved plate, the
print was “transferred” to the glazed
tile by applying the moist print to the
surface. A subsequent firing bonded

24. England (Fulham)
Sand’s End Pottery

Tile, 1898-1907, designed by William
Frend De Morgan (1839-1917)
Glazed earthenware, blue, green and
turquoise decoration

Purchase in memory of

Georgiana L. McClellan
1953-104-4

the printed image to the tile. One of
the most active factories that pro-
duced transfer-printed tiles was
founded in Liverpool by John Sadler
and Guy Green. The rapid means of
production through the use of trans-
fers had enabled Sadler and Green
by 1756 to decorate 1200 tiles in
about 6 hours.

The nineteenth century saw the
growth of highly efficient industrial-
ized tile industries in many coun-

tries, but particularly in England.
Commercial production of tiles satis-
fied the growing need for tile sur-
rounds for the fireplaces which were
appearing in more and more rooms in
middle-class homes. The aesthetic
quality of such tiles was criticized by
many designers in the latter part of
the century who wished to return the
“art” of tile design to the medium.
Among the influential and innovative
designers who turned their atten-
tion to tiles was the Arts and Crafts

25. England (Fulham)

29

Sand’s End Pottery

Tile, about 1900, designed by
Halsey R. Ricardo (1854—1928)
Green glazed earthenware
Purchase in memory of
Georgiana L. McClellan
1953-104-12

movement luminary William Frend
De Morgan. Born in 1839, De Morgan
was trained as an artist, and sub-
sequently became a friend of the
spearhead of the movement, William
Morris. By the 1870's De Morgan had
established his own ceramic factory
in Chelsea, where he designed and
produced ceramic vessels as well as
tiles. In his early Chelsea years, De
Morgan painted tiles on ready-made
commercial “blanks.” Following a
move of the factory and the construc-

tion of kilns at Merton Abbey, and at
Sand’s End in Fulham, De Morgan
produced tiles from the initial stages
of clay preparation to the final firing of
painted decoration. De Morgan tiles
are notable for their rich and subtle
coloration, particularly in subjects
drawn from the world of plants and
flowers (Illus. 24), but also for his
clever use of impressed decoration
and solid color glazes to produce rich
surface effects (Illus. 25).

30

26. United States

31

(Doylestown, Pennsylvania)
Moravian Pottery and Tile Works
Tile, 1937: “Persian Antelope”
Glazed earthenware

The Misses Hewitt Fund
1937-62-3

This brief survey of the Cooper-
Hewitt collection of tiles concludes
with an example of American origin
(Illus. 26). This tile, which depicts a
“Persian Antelope” was made at the
Moravian Pottery and Tile Works,
founded by Henry Chapman Mercer
in 1898 in Doylestown, Pennsylvania.
Mercer was among the leaders in the
movement to revitalize the tile tradi-
tion in America; his initial efforts,
however, were to reproduce exam-
ples of indigenous pottery found in
Pennsylvania. Mercer chose designs
from cast-iron stove plates of the
eighteenth century, but also copied
medieval and Middle Eastern exam-
ples. The bright red clay body of many
Moravian Pottery and Tile Works
pieces is enhanced with particularly

rich and watery glazes. It seems ap-
propriate that this tile, made in the
twentieth century and in the United
States, based on early Persian exam-
ples similar to those early examples
in the Cooper-Hewitt collection,
should close this survey of the

tiles preserved at Cooper-Hewitt
Museum for the enjoyment of future
generations of Museum visitors.

David Revere McFadden
Curator of Decorative Arts

Selected Bibliography

Barnard, Julian. Victorian Ceramic Tiles (Greenwich, Conn., New York Graphic Society, 1972).
Berendsen, Anne. Tiles: A General History (New York, Viking Press, 1967).

Frankfort, H. The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient (Baltimore, Penguin Books, 1955).
Frothingham, Alice. Talavera Pottery (New York, Hispanic Society of America, 1944).
Giacomotti, Jeanne. Histoire de la Céramique... (Paris, R. Ducher, 1933-35).

Haberly, Loyd. Mediaeval English Paving Tiles (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1937).

Helbig, J. La Céramique Bruxelloise du Bon Vieux Temps (Brussels, Edition du Cercle d’Art, 1946).
Huseler, Konrad. Deutsche Fayencen. .. (3 vol.) (Stuttgart, A. Hiersemann, 1956-58).

Jonge, C. H. de. Dutch Tiles (New York, Washington, London, Praeger Publishers, 1971).
_____. Qud-Nederlandsche Majolica en Delftsch Aardewerk ... (Amsterdam, Scheltema en Holkema, 1947).
Lane, Arthur. French Faience... (London, Faber and Faber, 1948).

____. A Guide to the Collections of Tiles (London, Victoria and Albert Museum, 1960).

. Later Islamic Pottery (London, Faber and Faber, 1957).

Liverani, G. Five Centuries of Italian Majolica (New York, McGraw-Hill, 1960).

Pope, A.U. Introduction to Persian Art... (London, 1930).

Price, E. S. John Sadler; A Liverpool Pottery Printer (West Kirby, England, 1949).

Queiroz, José. Ceramica Portuguesa (2nd edition) (Lisbon, 1948).

Rackham, Bernard. Catalogue of Italian Majolica (London, Victoria and Albert Museum, 1940).
______. Dutch Tiles (London, Victoria and Albert Museum, 1923).

_____. Early Netherlands Majolica. . . (London, 1926). 502577
Ray, Anthony. English Delftware Tiles (London, Faber and Faber, 1973).

Tilmans, Emile. Faiences de France (Paris, Editions des Deux-Mondes, 1954).

Wight, Jane. Medieval Floor Tiles (New York, St. Martin's Press, 1975).

32

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INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI_ NVINOSHLINS _S3I1YVa:

S3S!YVYdIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN

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INSTITUTION

INSTITUTION

NVINOSHLINS SAIUYVYEIT LIBRARIES

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NVINOSHLINS S31YVYEITLIBRARIES

NVINOSHLIWS
SMITHSONIAN

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NVINOSHLINS

IBRARIES SMITHSONIAN

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IBRARIES

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